layout: true class: typo, typo-selection --- count: false class: nord-dark, middle, center # ⏰ Deferred-Merge Embedding (DME) Algorithm ### in Clock Tree Synthesis @luk036 👨‍💻 · 2026 📅 --- ### 📋 Agenda .pull-left[ **Part 1: Introduction** 🎯 - What is CTS? 🤔 - DME Overview 🧠 - Merging Segment Concept 🔀 **Part 2: Data Structures & Delay Models** 📦 - Sink, TreeNode, Calculators 📦 - Strategy Pattern ⚙️ - Linear vs Elmore 📊 **Part 3: Algorithm Steps** 🔄 - Build Merging Tree 🌳 - Compute Segments 📐 - Embed & Compute 🎯 **Part 4: Linear vs Elmore** ⚖️ - Comparison & Formulas 📈 ] .pull-right[ **Part 5: Elongation Handling** 🔧 - Boundary Conditions ⚠️ **Part 6: Visualization & Code** 💻 - SVG Outputs 🖼️ - Code Demo 💻 **Part 7: Analysis & Verification** 📈 - Complexity ⏱️ - Skew Verification 🔍 - Design Patterns 🎯 - Testing 🧪 **Part 8: Related & Future** 🔮 - Related Modules 📚 - Future Enhancements 🔮 - Summary ✅ ] --- class: nord-light, middle, center ## Part 1: Introduction 🎯 --- ### 🎯 What is Clock Tree Synthesis (CTS)? Key Objectives - ✅ **prescribed-skew (not necessarily zero)**: All sinks receive clock at the prescribed time - ✅ **Minimum wirelength**: Reduce area and power - ✅ **Balanced tree**: Equal path delays to all endpoints .pull-left[ **Clock Tree Synthesis** creates a distribution network that delivers the clock signal to all sequential elements (flip-flops, registers) with **minimum skew**. ] .pull-right[ .mermaid[ <pre> graph TD A[Clock Source] --> B[Clock Tree] B --> C[FF1] B --> D[FF2] B --> E[FF3] B --> F[FFn] style A fill:#fff3e0,stroke:#e65100,color:#2e3440,stroke-width:3px style B fill:#e3f2fd,stroke:#1565c0,color:#2e3440,stroke-width:3px style C fill:#c8e6c9,stroke:#2e7d32,color:#2e3440,stroke-width:3px style D fill:#c8e6c9,stroke:#2e7d32,color:#2e3440,stroke-width:3px style E fill:#c8e6c9,stroke:#2e7d32,color:#2e3440,stroke-width:3px style F fill:#c8e6c9,stroke:#2e7d32,color:#2e3440,stroke-width:3px </pre> ] ] --- ### 🧠 DME Algorithm - Core Concept The DME algorithm consists of **two phases**: .mermaid[ <pre> flowchart LR A["Phase 1:\n Bottom-Up"] --> B["Phase 2: Top-Down"] B --> C["prescribed-skew \n (not necessarily zero) Clock Tree"] style A fill:#fff3e0,stroke:#e65100,color:#2e3440,stroke-width:3px style B fill:#e3f2fd,stroke:#1565c0,color:#2e3440,stroke-width:3px style C fill:#c8e6c9,stroke:#2e7d32,color:#2e3440,stroke-width:3px </pre> ] #### Phase 1: Bottom-Up (Merge) - Compute **merging segments** for each node - Segment = set of possible locations for prescribed-skew (not necessarily zero) #### Phase 2: Top-Down (Embed) - Select actual positions from merging segments - Minimize total wirelength --- ### 🔀 Merging Segment Concept #### Key Elements - **L, R**: Left and right subtrees (children) - **Boxes**: Merging segments (MS) of children - **v**: New parent node to be created - **Dashed lines**: Projection to form new MS #### Definition > **Merging Segment**: The set of all possible positions where a parent node can be placed while maintaining **prescribed-skew (not necessarily zero)** between its children. --- class: nord-light, middle, center ## Part 2: Data Structures & Delay Models 📦 --- ### 📦 Data Structures .pull-left[ #### 1. Sink - Clock Endpoint ```python @dataclass class Sink: name: str position: Point capacitance = 1.0 ``` #### 2. TreeNode - Tree Element .font-sm[ ```python @dataclass class TreeNode: name: str position: Point left: Optional[TreeNode] = None right: Optional[TreeNode] = None parent: Optional[TreeNode] = None wire_length = 0 delay = 0.0 capacitance = 0.0 need_elongation = False ``` ] ] .pull-right[ #### Node Types | Type | Description | |------|-------------| | Leaf | Clock sink (flip-flop) | | Internal | Merging point | | Root | Clock source connection | ] --- ### ⚙️ Strategy Pattern - Delay Calculators #### Abstract Base Class ```python class DelayCalculator(ABC): @abstractmethod def calculate_wire_delay(self, length, load_cap) -> float: pass @abstractmethod def calculate_wire_delay_per_unit(self, load_cap) -> float: pass @abstractmethod def calculate_wire_cap(self, length) -> float: pass ``` #### Why Strategy Pattern? - ✅ Swap delay models without changing algorithm - ✅ Easy to add new models (e.g., higher-order RC) - ✅ Clean separation of concerns --- ### 📊 Linear Delay Model #### Formula $$ {\color{orange} \text{delay}} = {\color{green} k} \times {\color{blue} \text{length}} $$ Where ${\color{green} k}$ is the delay per unit length. ```python class LinearDelayCalculator(DelayCalculator): def __init__(self, delay_per_unit = 1.0, cap_per_unit = 1.0): self.delay_per_unit = delay_per_unit self.cap_per_unit = cap_per_unit def calculate_wire_delay(self, length, load_cap) -> float: return self.delay_per_unit * length ``` ```python def calculate_tapping_point(self, node_left, node_right, distance): skew = node_right.delay - node_left.delay extend_left = round((skew / self.delay_per_unit + distance) / 2) delay_left = node_left.delay + extend_left * self.delay_per_unit return extend_left, delay_left ``` --- ### 🔬 Elmore Delay Model #### Formula $$ {\color{orange} \text{delay}} = {\color{blue} R} \times \left( \frac{{\color{green} C}}{2} + {\color{red} C_\text{load}} \right) $$ Where: - ${\color{blue} R}$ = wire resistance - ${\color{green} C}$ = wire capacitance - ${\color{red} C_\text{load}}$ = load capacitance --- #### Implementation ```python class ElmoreDelayCalculator(DelayCalculator): def __init__(self, unit_res = 1.0, unit_cap = 1.0): self.unit_res = unit_res self.unit_cap = unit_cap def calculate_wire_delay(self, length, load_cap) -> float: wire_res = self.unit_res * length wire_cap = self.unit_cap * length return wire_res * (wire_cap / 2 + load_cap) ``` #### Key Difference .font-sm[ | Model | Complexity | Accuracy | |-------|------------|----------| | Linear | O(1) | Basic | | Elmore | O(1) | Realistic RC | ] --- class: nord-light, middle, center ## Part 3: Algorithm Steps 🔄 --- ### 🔄 Algorithm Steps #### DMEAlgorithm.build_clock_tree() ```python def build_clock_tree(self) -> TreeNode: # Step 1: Create leaf nodes from sinks nodes = [TreeNode(name=s.name, position=s.position, capacitance=s.capacitance) for s in self.sinks] # Step 2: Build merging tree (balanced bipartition) merging_tree = self._build_merging_tree(nodes, False) # Step 3: Compute merging segments (bottom-up) merging_segments = self._compute_merging_segments(merging_tree) # Step 4: Embed tree (top-down) clock_tree = self._embed_tree(merging_tree, merging_segments) # Step 5: Compute delays and wire lengths self._compute_tree_parameters(clock_tree) return clock_tree ``` --- ### 🌳 Step 2: Build Merging Tree #### Balanced Bipartition .font-sm[ ```python def _build_merging_tree(self, nodes: List[TreeNode], vertical: bool) -> TreeNode: if len(nodes) == 1: return nodes[0] # Sort along alternating axes (x, y, x, y...) if vertical: sorted_nodes = sorted(nodes, key=lambda n: n.position.xcoord) else: sorted_nodes = sorted(nodes, key=lambda n: n.position.ycoord) # Split into two balanced groups mid = len(sorted_nodes) // 2 left_group = sorted_nodes[:mid] right_group = sorted_nodes[mid:] # Recursively build subtrees left_child = self._build_merging_tree(left_group, not vertical) right_child = self._build_merging_tree(right_group, not vertical) # Create parent node parent = TreeNode(name=f"n{self.node_id}", position=left_child.position, left=left_child, right=right_child) return parent ``` ] --- ### 📐 Step 3: Compute Merging Segments .font-sm[ ```python def _compute_merging_segments(self, root: TreeNode) -> Dict[str, Any]: merging_segments = {} def compute_segment(node: TreeNode): if node.left is None and node.right is None: # Leaf: merging segment = point manhattan_segment = self.MA_TYPE.from_point(node.position) merging_segments[node.name] = manhattan_segment return manhattan_segment # Recursively compute children segments left_ms = compute_segment(node.left) right_ms = compute_segment(node.right) # Calculate distance between segments distance = left_ms.min_dist_with(right_ms) # Calculate tapping point for prescribed-skew (not necessarily zero) extend_left, delay_left = self.delay_calculator.calculate_tapping_point( node.left, node.right, distance) node.delay = delay_left # Merge segments merged_segment = left_ms.merge_with(right_ms, extend_left) merging_segments[node.name] = merged_segment # Update capacitance wire_cap = self.delay_calculator.calculate_wire_cap(distance) node.capacitance = node.left.capacitance + node.right.capacitance + wire_cap return merged_segment compute_segment(root) return merging_segments ``` ] --- ### 🎯 Step 4: Top-Down Embedding #### Position Selection .font-sm[ ```python def _embed_tree(self, merging_tree, merging_segments): def embed_node(node, parent_segment=None): if node is None: return if parent_segment is None: # Root: choose position nearest to source node_segment = merging_segments[node.name] if self.source is None: node.position = node_segment.get_upper_corner() else: node.position = node_segment.nearest_point_to(self.source) else: # Internal: choose position nearest to parent node_segment = merging_segments[node.name] node.position = node_segment.nearest_point_to(node.parent.position) node.wire_length = node.position.min_dist_with(node.parent.position) # Recursively embed children embed_node(node.left, merging_segments[node.name]) embed_node(node.right, merging_segments[node.name]) embed_node(merging_tree) return merging_tree ``` ] --- ### 🧮 Step 5: Compute Delays #### Final Delay Calculation ```python def _compute_tree_parameters(self, root: TreeNode) -> None: def compute_delays(node, parent_delay=0.0): if node is None: return if node.parent: # Calculate wire delay from parent wire_delay = self.delay_calculator.calculate_wire_delay( node.wire_length, node.capacitance) node.delay = parent_delay + wire_delay else: node.delay = 0.0 # Root has zero delay # Recursively compute for children compute_delays(node.left, node.delay) compute_delays(node.right, node.delay) compute_delays(root) ``` --- class: nord-light, middle, center ## Part 4: Linear vs Elmore ⚖️ --- ### 📊 Linear vs Elmore - Comparison .pull-left[ #### Example Output .font-sm[ ```python sinks = [ Sink("s1", Point(10, 20), 1.0), Sink("s2", Point(30, 40), 1.0), Sink("s3", Point(50, 10), 1.0), Sink("s4", Point(70, 30), 1.0), Sink("s5", Point(90, 50), 1.0), ] ``` ] ] .pull-right[ #### Results Comparison .font-sm[ | Metric | Linear | Elmore | |--------|--------|--------| | Skew | 0.0 | 0.0 | | Max Delay | ~45.0 | ~120.0 | | Wirelength | Same | Same | ] ] #### Key Insight - Both achieve **prescribed-skew (not necessarily zero)** ✅ - Elmore provides **realistic delay** values - Linear is faster for quick estimation --- ### 📈 Delay Model Formulas #### Linear Delay $$ {\color{blue} D_\text{Linear}} = {\color{green} k} \cdot {\color{orange} L} $$ #### Elmore Delay $$ {\color{blue} D} = {\color{green} R} \cdot {\color{orange} L} \cdot \left(\frac{{\color{coral} C} \cdot {\color{orange} L}}{2} + {\color{red} C_\text{load}}\right) $$ Or expanded: $$ {\color{blue} D} = {\color{green} R} \cdot {\color{coral} C} \cdot \frac{{\color{orange} L^2}}{2} + {\color{green} R} \cdot {\color{red} C_\text{load}} \cdot {\color{orange} L} $$ #### Complexity - Linear: **O(L)** - proportional to length - Elmore: **O(L²)** - quadratic (dominates for long wires) --- class: nord-light, middle, center ## Part 5: Elongation Handling 🔧 --- ### 🔧 Handling Elongation #### What is Elongation? When the tapping point calculation yields a position **outside** the valid range, we need to **elongate** one branch to maintain prescribed-skew (not necessarily zero). .mermaid[ <pre> flowchart LR A[Calculate tapping point] --> B{extend_left < 0?} B -->|Yes| C["Right branch too short\n Set extend_left = 0"] B -->|No| D{extend_left > distance?} D -->|Yes| E["Left branch too short\n Set extend_left = distance"] D -->|No| F["Normal case\n Use calculated value"] C --> G[Mark node.need_elongation = True] E --> G F --> H[Assign wire lengths normally] style A fill:#fff3e0,stroke:#e65100,color:#2e3440,stroke-width:3px style B fill:#ffcdd2,stroke:#c62828,color:#2e3440,stroke-width:3px style D fill:#ffcdd2,stroke:#c62828,color:#2e3440,stroke-width:3px style G fill:#ffcdd2,stroke:#c62828,color:#2e3440,stroke-width:3px style H fill:#c8e6c9,stroke:#2e7d32,color:#2e3440,stroke-width:3px </pre> ] #### Boundary Conditions ```python def _handle_boundary_conditions( self, extend_left, distance, node_left: TreeNode, node_right: TreeNode, delay_left, ) -> Tuple[int, float]: if extend_left < 0: # Left branch cannot reach - extend right node_left.wire_length = 0 node_right.wire_length = distance extend_left = 0 delay_left = node_left.delay node_right.need_elongation = True # ⚠️ Flag for later handling elif extend_left > distance: # Right branch cannot reach - extend left node_right.wire_length = 0 node_left.wire_length = distance extend_left = distance delay_left = node_right.delay node_left.need_elongation = True # ⚠️ Flag for later handling else: # Normal case node_left.wire_length = extend_left node_right.wire_length = distance - extend_left return extend_left, delay_left ``` #### Why Elongation Happens? .font-sm[ | Scenario | Cause | Solution | |----------|-------|----------| | `extend_left < 0` | Left delay >> Right delay | Extend right wire to balance | | `extend_left > distance` | Right delay >> Left delay | Extend left wire to balance | ] #### Visual Example ```text Before Elongation: After Elongation: L ---- v ---- R L ---- v ---- R | | +----Elongation----+ +----Elongation----+ The dotted line shows the extra wire added to balance delays. ``` #### The `need_elongation` Flag - Set to `True` when boundary condition triggers - Used for **post-processing** or **reporting** - Helps identify problematic branches in the tree ```python # After tree building, check for elongation def check_elongation(node): if node.need_elongation: print(f"Warning: {node.name} requires elongation") if node.left: check_elongation(node.left) if node.right: check_elongation(node.right) ``` --- ### ⚠️ Boundary Conditions #### Handling Edge Cases The algorithm handles special cases in `_handle_boundary_conditions()`: ```python if extend_left < 0: # Left branch too short - extend right node_left.wire_length = 0 node_right.wire_length = distance node_right.need_elongation = True elif extend_left > distance: # Right branch too short - extend left node_right.wire_length = 0 node_left.wire_length = distance node_left.need_elongation = True else: # Normal case node_left.wire_length = extend_left node_right.wire_length = distance - extend_left ``` --- class: nord-light, middle, center ## Part 6: Visualization & Code 💻 --- ### 🖼️ Visualization - 2D Clock Trees #### 1. Elmore Delay Model  --- #### 2. Linear Delay Model  --- ### 📊 Delay Model Comparison  Shows Elmore vs Linear delay distribution across the tree. --- ### 💻 Code Demo - Basic Usage #### Create Clock Sinks ```python from physdes.cts.dme_algorithm import Sink, DMEAlgorithm from physdes.point import Point # Define sinks (flip-flops) sinks = [ Sink("FF1", Point(0, 0), 1.0), Sink("FF2", Point(10, 0), 1.0), Sink("FF3", Point(5, 10), 1.0), ] ``` #### Build Clock Tree ```python # Using Linear delay model linear_calc = LinearDelayCalculator(delay_per_unit=0.5) dme_linear = DMEAlgorithm(sinks, delay_calculator=linear_calc) clock_tree = dme_linear.build_clock_tree() # Analyze results analysis = dme_linear.analyze_skew(clock_tree) print(f"Skew: {analysis['skew']}") # Should be ~0 print(f"Wirelength: {analysis['total_wirelength']}") ``` --- ### 💻 Code Demo: Elmore Model ```python # Using Elmore delay model elmore_calc = ElmoreDelayCalculator( unit_res=0.1, unit_cap=0.2 ) dme_elmore = DMEAlgorithm(sinks, delay_calculator=elmore_calc) clock_tree = dme_elmore.build_clock_tree() # Analyze results analysis = dme_elmore.analyze_skew(clock_tree) print(f"Skew: {analysis['skew']}") # Should be ~0 print(f"Max delay: {analysis['max_delay']:.3f}") ``` --- ### 💻 Code Demo: Source Location ```python # Specify clock source location source = Point(5, 5) dme = DMEAlgorithm( sinks, delay_calculator=LinearDelayCalculator(), source=source ) clock_tree = dme.build_clock_tree() # Root will be placed nearest to source print(f"Root position: {clock_tree.position}") ``` --- class: nord-light, middle, center ## Part 7: Analysis & Verification 📈 --- ### 📈 Algorithm Complexity .font-sm[ | Operation | Time Complexity | |-----------|----------------| | Build merging tree | $O(n \log n)$ | | Compute segments | $O(n)$ | | Embed tree | $O(n)$ | | Compute delays | $O(n)$ | | **Total** | **$O(n \log n)$** | ] Where $n$ = number of sinks #### Space Complexity: $O(n)$ for merging segments storage --- ### 🔍 prescribed-skew (not necessarily zero) Verification #### analyze_skew() Method ```python def analyze_skew(self, root: TreeNode) -> Dict[str, Any]: sink_delays = [] # Collect all sink delays def collect_sink_delays(node): if node is None: return if node.left is None and node.right is None: sink_delays.append(node.delay) collect_sink_delays(node.left) collect_sink_delays(node.right) collect_sink_delays(root) max_delay = max(sink_delays) min_delay = min(sink_delays) skew = max_delay - min_delay return { "max_delay": max_delay, "min_delay": min_delay, "skew": skew, "sink_delays": sink_delays, "total_wirelength": self._total_wirelength(root), } ``` --- ### 🎯 Key Design Patterns #### 1. Strategy Pattern .mermaid[ <pre> graph LR DME[DMEAlgorithm] -->|uses| DC[DelayCalculator] DC -->|implements| Linear[LinearDelayCalculator] DC -->|implements| Elmore[ElmoreDelayCalculator] style DME fill:#fff3e0,stroke:#e65100,color:#2e3440,stroke-width:3px style DC fill:#e3f2fd,stroke:#1565c0,color:#2e3440,stroke-width:3px style Linear fill:#c8e6c9,stroke:#2e7d32,color:#2e3440,stroke-width:3px style Elmore fill:#c8e6c9,stroke:#2e7d32,color:#2e3440,stroke-width:3px </pre> ] #### 2. Template Method - `build_clock_tree()` defines the skeleton - Subclasses customize delay calculation --- ### 🧪 Testing #### Run Tests ```bash # All tests pytest tests/test_dme_algorithm.py -v # Specific test pytest tests/test_dme_algorithm.py::test_zero_skew -v # With coverage pytest --cov physdes.cts.dme_algorithm --cov-report term-missing ``` #### Test Coverage .font-sm[ | Feature | Tests | |---------|-------| | Zero skew verification | ✅ | | Linear vs Elmore | ✅ | | Boundary conditions (Elongation) | ✅ | | Wirelength calculation | ✅ | ] --- class: nord-light, middle, center ## Part 8: Related & Future 🔮 --- ### 🔄 Related Modules #### ManhattanArc Used for merging segment representation: ```python class ManhattanArc: """Rectilinear path representation""" @staticmethod def from_point(point: Point) -> ManhattanArc: """Create arc from a single point""" def min_dist_with(self, other: ManhattanArc) -> int: """Calculate Manhattan distance between arcs""" def merge_with(self, other: ManhattanArc, extend_left) -> ManhattanArc: """Merge two arcs to form parent segment""" def nearest_point_to(self, point: Point) -> Point: """Find closest point on arc to given point""" ``` --- ### 📚 File Structure ```text physdes-py/ ├── src/physdes/ │ ├── cts/ │ │ └── dme_algorithm.py # Main DME implementation ⭐ │ ├── manhattan_arc.py # Merging segments │ ├── point.py # Point/Interval classes │ └── router/ │ └── global_router.py # Related routing algorithms ├── tests/ │ └── test_dme_algorithm.py # DME tests ├── outputs/ │ ├── *clock_tree*.svg # Visualization outputs │ └── delay_model_comparison.svg └── README.md ``` --- ### 🔮 Future Enhancements #### Potential Improvements .font-sm[ | Feature | Description | Difficulty | |---------|-------------|------------| | **Buffer insertion** | Add repeaters for long wires | ⭐⭐⭐ | | **Useful skew** | Allow small skew for optimization | ⭐⭐ | | **Power-aware** | Minimize power consumption | ⭐⭐⭐ | | **Variation-aware** | Handle process variations | ⭐⭐⭐ | | **Multi-clock** | Support multiple clock domains | ⭐⭐⭐ | ] #### Related Projects - [physdes-cpp](https://github.com/luk036/physdes-cpp) - C++ implementation - [physdes-rs](https://github.com/luk036/physdes-rs) - Rust implementation --- ### ✅ Summary #### What We Covered 1. **Clock Tree Synthesis** - prescribed-skew (not necessarily zero) objective 2. **DME Algorithm** - Bottom-up merge, top-down embed 3. **Data Structures** - Sink, TreeNode, ManhattanArc 4. **Strategy Pattern** - Linear and Elmore delay models 5. **Algorithm Steps** - Build, Merge, Embed, Compute 6. **Elongation Handling** - Boundary conditions for prescribed-skew (not necessarily zero) 7. **Visualization** - SVG output examples 8. **Code Demo** - Implementation walkthrough #### Key Takeaways - ✅ DME achieves **prescribed-skew (not necessarily zero)** reliably - ✅ **Strategy pattern** enables flexible delay models - ✅ Both Linear and Elmore produce valid trees - ✅ Elongation handling ensures robust boundary condition treatment --- ### 📎 Appendix: Mathematical Formulas #### Manhattan Distance (2D) $$ {\color{blue} d}((x_1, y_1), (x_2, y_2)) = |{\color{green} x_1} - {\color{green} x_2}| + |{\color{orange} y_1} - {\color{orange} y_2}| $$ #### Wire capacitance $$ {\color{coral} C_{wire}} = {\color{green} C_{unit}} \times {\color{orange} L} $$ #### Total Node capacitance $$ {\color{blue} C_{total}} = {\color{green} C_{left}} + {\color{orange} C_{right}} + {\color{coral} C_{wire}} $$ --- ### 📎 Appendix: Class Hierarchy .mermaid[ <pre> classDiagram class DelayCalculator { <<abstract>> +calculate_wire_delay(length, load_cap) +calculate_wire_delay_per_unit(load_cap) +calculate_wire_cap(length) +calculate_tapping_point(node_left, node_right, distance) } class LinearDelayCalculator { +delay_per_unit +cap_per_unit } class ElmoreDelayCalculator { +unit_res +unit_cap } DelayCalculator <|-- LinearDelayCalculator DelayCalculator <|-- ElmoreDelayCalculator </pre> ] --- ### 📎 Appendix: API Reference #### DMEAlgorithm .font-sm[ | Method | Description | |--------|-------------| | `build_clock_tree()` | Main entry point | | `analyze_skew(root)` | Return skew analysis | | `_build_merging_tree()` | Create binary tree | | `_compute_merging_segments()` | Bottom-up MS computation | | `_embed_tree()` | Top-down positioning | | `_compute_tree_parameters()` | Delay calculation | ] #### DelayCalculator .font-sm[ | Method | Description | |--------|-------------| | `calculate_wire_delay()` | Wire delay for segment | | `calculate_wire_delay_per_unit()` | Delay per unit length | | `calculate_wire_cap()` | Wire capacitance | | `calculate_tapping_point()` | prescribed-skew (not necessarily zero) balance point | ] --- count: false class: nord-dark, middle, center # 🙋 Q&A ### Questions? Discussion? 💬  **Contact:** GitHub: [luk036/physdes-py](https://github.com/luk036/physdes-py) · Documentation: [physdes-py.readthedocs.io](https://physdes-py.readthedocs.io/) --- count: false class: nord-dark, middle, center # 👏 Thank You ### physdes-py — VLSI Physical Design Python Library  Slides built with Remark.js 🎉 | KaTeX 📐 | Mermaid 🧩 | Nord Theme 🌙